Newman’s Sermon

A summary 1.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Faith presumes. Reason examines. 2.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Because we believe one thing it is easier to believe the next. 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Faith and Reason have different starting points. 4.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Faith has a bearing on practice. 5.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Faith is presumption rather than proof. 6.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   We cannot inherit faith but must acquire it for ourselves. 7.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To have Faith is to test oneself. 8.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Religion won’t convince someone who doesn’t want to be convinced. 9.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What we believe is based upon our previous experience. 10.   Faith is a test of character not of intellect. 11.   Reason is opposed to Faith, but so is unbelief. 12.   Faith doesn’t depend upon intellectual ability. 13.   There seems to be no rule about what to believe and what not. A safe guard is there needed. Many think this should be education. Faith is then an act of reason. Not so. Faith’s safeguard is a right state of heart. 18 and 19. Personal faith is the way to eternal life. 20. Because we love we can recognise the love of the Saviour. 21.We believe because we love. 22,23,24. Examples from scripture. 25. Holiness and love will keep us safe and on track. 26. Faith is an act of reason and based upon a presumption prompted by love 27. Faith turns us away from evil towards good. 28. Lack of faith leads to disobedience. 29. For the Christian faith supercedes sacrifice because of the atonement. 30. For many Christians their faith is tinged with superstition. 31. We should act on faith   and so not be misled as to what is God’s will. 32. Gospel truths cannot be contradicted by modern ideas. 33. Paul said the   gospel was the fulfilment of the law. 34. Judaizers first believed, but clung to law. 35. The Gospel completes the faith of the Jews. 36. It builds on what is revealed by nature 37. True faith is moving from the unknown to the known, from darkness to light. 38. That is all we need. Love, the safeguard of faith against superstition â€Å"The sheep follow Him, for they know His voice. And a stranger will they not follow, but will flee from him, for they know not the voice of strangers.† John 10 v. 4, 5. 1.Looked at logically Faith has this characteristic – it presumes, it trusts, rather than looking at evidence, rather than by measuring and examining. This is what distinguishes it from Knowledge as we use that word in our everyday lives. We say we know something when we have found it out by natural methods. We can be said to know a mathematical fact when we can demonstrate it to be true. We know that things are present because we sense them. We know about events that take place by using our moral judgement and so judge them to be good or bad. We know about the past and things we will never see by the evidence that we find . When for instance we hear testimony of a miracle occurring from honest men who are neither being deceived or out to deceive us we may be said to know what they testify to as fact. We know about the nature of the case because of the Evidence and when we believe in a miracle because of such Evidence we can be said to believe because of reason. 2. By using our reason we look at the evidence and we believe, and because we believe one thing we can go forward and believe something else. In the general sense Faith is this kind of knowledge – a presumption based on evidence. But as in earlier discourses Reason can be contrasted with Faith as meaning what can be inferred from evidence and which therefore leads to knowledge. 3. Faith is based on presumption and Reason on factual knowledge. Reason makes the fact that is to ascertained the most important point [1].It then looks at the evidence available. It doesn’t exclude what has gone before [2], but doesn’t begin with that. Faith has a different starting point. It begins on a basis of previous knowledge and opinions which, though they may not lead to exactly the same conclusion tend towards it. To take a step of faith is to act before absolute certainty. It could be said to be against Reason or even to triumph over Reason, to take hold of what Reason sees as beyond its reach. Faith is beyond argument, and so is not capable of being argued against and cannot defend itself by using logic i.e. it seems illogical. 4. So why are we bothering with it. Because I believe that Faith has a bearing on practice. Our text was ‘The sheep follow him because they know his voice.’ Their faith leads them to follow. 5. As things turn out day by day we see that Faith is a judgement made by reaching out towards facts, a presumption in their proof, rather than a search for proof. There is no doubt that for the vast majority of sincerely religious   who stake their happiness upon Faith, do so not from examination of the facts , but from a spontaneous move of the heart. They reach out to meet with God despite the fact that they can’t see him. They discern his presence in symbols that are provided [3]. They may perhaps later examine more closely the evidence on which their faith is founded and see whether or not they are justified in believing, but their faith did not begin with the evidence, nor is it affected by the strength of their knowledge,[4] although it may be strengthened by such knowledge. They believe because of something within themselves, not basing their faith only on what Religion teaches. 6. Many Christians can be said to have merely inherited the Faith. They need a faith of their own. 7. Everyone needs to test his own Faith rather than merely accept what he is told. 8. Not that such evidence is deficient, but whether of true religion or a false one the evidence for or against religion is not of the kind that will convince someone against his will. I don’t mean that the evidence has no value one way or another, for or against Christianity, but that few people, in the bustle of their daily lives, have time to consider all the evidence before making decisions. Most of us, most of the time, make judgements by stepping out and meeting the evidence to a greater or lesser degree.[5] 9. This is the way in which we make judgements, because we cannot do it any other way. We act upon only part of the evidence. We make judgements based on the way we feel, how credulous we are, and what seems feasible and safe often based on our previous experience. It is the same with religious experiences. When we apparently experience the supernatural we judge it according to how much we want to believe it. Such judgements are based upon such things as our views of life and our knowledge of the miraculous. We decide whether or not something is true according to how the alleged miracle fits into our existing religious life and knowledge. 10. These religious judgements are not exactly like those we make in our ordinary lives. Evidence about worldly matters is all around us and our minds are not necessarily capable or discrimination between truth and falsehood. Religious facts are fewer in number and of a different kind and the powers we use to judge them are correspondingly stronger. Even the wisest person can make worldly judgements that are wrong, and go against the evidence available, but this does not necessarily mean that even the most ordinary intellect need be wrong in making judgements about the more important kingdom of heaven. I believe that a merciful God are so ordered things that faith, based on presumption, will lead to the same conclusions as if, as the minority do, we carefully examine the evidence. I am not speaking of the trustworthiness of Faith, but of its nature. Faith is a test of moral character. This is the essence of religious faith as opposed to Reason, which by its nature excludes prejudice or what we want to happen in favour of carefully examining the facts. We make multiple decisions on the way when using reason, before we come to a fixed conclusion. This means that there is little merit in getting   the right answer in, for example , a mathematical problem or indeed little guilt involved in making a wrong decision because of a faulty memory. 11. So we see Faith as being opposed to Reason, but we must not forget that Unbelief is also opposed to Reason. Unbelief considers itself to be totally logical, but when it comes to questions of religion Unbelief criticizes the evidence not in a logical way, but because it doesn’t suit. It makes presumptions in a similar way to that which Faith does, but in a negative rather than a positive way. It is the opposite of Faith. It considers religion to be so impossible that it fails to see the evidence. Unbelievers consider themselves rational beings, but they do not decide by evidence. They just make decisions and stick with them. Hume,[6] in the case of alleged miracles, said ‘What have we to oppose†¦..but the absolute impossibility or miraculous nature of the events†¦.’ Hume   sees improbability as sufficient reason for denying the evidence, but presumptions made on either the   side of Faith or Unbelief cannot, by their nature, be proved. Hume went on to say of Faith, ‘Mere Reason is insufficient to convince us of its veracity. 12. Faith   is an exercise of presumptive reasoning which is open to all and does not depend upon intellectual ability. If the majority believe, not because of careful examination of the evidence, but because they are ‘ordained to eternal life’ then this must be the way that God wants it. There may be difficulties with our Faith, but let us face up to them and so overcome them. 13. Such a view of Faith may be made an excuse for all kinds of bigotry and lead to superstition. There seems to be no rule for what is to be believed and what not. If we are to accept the miracles and Revelations of Christianity why not those of other faiths? 14. So a safeguard is needed if Faith is not to become superstition.   The consensus seems to be that if you educate people about their Faith and encourage them to reflect you will avoid fanaticism and superstition. 15. If this is so then Faith is an act of Reason. 16.Yet I deny that any intellectual act is necessary for right Faith, that it needs to be more than a presumption or that it necessarily needs to be fortified by education. The safeguard of Faith is a right state of heart. It is holiness and love which is the principles behind true faith. 17.18.19. Christ is the way into the kingdom of God. Knowing him in a personal way and following him in Faith is the way to eternal life. 20. The Jews didn’t love Christ   and so were unable   to see him as Saviour. Just as a child trusts his parents because of the affection he receives so we believe because we love . 21. Just as sheep do not follow a stranger so we won’t be misled if we know and follow Christ. We believe because we love. 22. This doctrine is expounded in several places such as Ist Corinthians 2 which teaches us the worthlessness of natural Reason. 23.24. Other examples from scripture. 25. Holiness and love are what keep us on track and prevent us getting caught out by things that are wrong. 26. Right Faith is the Faith of a right mind. It is an intellectual act, an act of reasoning based upon presumption and stirred into action by a spirit of love and purity. We will recognise true Revelation because it not be in opposition to the nature of God. 27. Superstition is the worship of evil spirits. Faith is an instinct of Love towards both God and man. It will cause us to turn from what is evil and towards what is good. 28. Lack of faith leads to disobeying God’s laws. 29. However what is superstition for a Jew or Christian is not necessarily so for a heathen   who is not bound by the rules of his Faith. Blood sacrifices for a heathen are not   necessarily superstitious, but for the Christian they have been superseded by the   blood of Christ in the Atonement. 30. Take the example of the viper which bit St Paul on Malta. The people might have been mistaken in believing him to be a god, but at least they were aware of the possibility of heavenly intervention in human life. They weren’t Christians but they recognised the presence of God with Paul. 31. The woman with an issue of blood. Was that superstition? Her action did not fit with what she knew. She recognised in Jesus someone who could save her, yet she stayed on the edge. She didn’t want to bother him. Yet Christ commended her faith . In her faith tinged with superstition and humility we see many believers through the ages, who impair their true vision of God by concentrating on outward emblems. 32. In I Kings 13 we have the story of prophet of Judah who was credulous enough to be misled by the lying prophet. Not   a well known story, but an important one as it reminds us that even God’s people can be led astray. 33 It is not Faith but superstition that leads to stories of omens, charms and so on. We have found Christ already. If the doctrine of today contradicts that which has already been revealed we must disguard it or face the consequences. 34. That was what the Judaizers did. They received the Spirit but went back to the Law. Paul fought against such ideas and   proclaimed that the Gospel was the true fulfilment of the Law. 35. In the case of the heathen he paid respect to their beliefs, but tried to show how the Gospel was the completion of Faith.[7], a fulfilment of what had already been revealed to them by nature. This is real Faith, a moving forward, closer to God. A move from the known to the unknown. It is made perfect not by intellect but by obedience, the act of a pure, obedient and devout mind. 37.This is sufficient. [1] As when a scientist states the hypothesis which his experiment will prove [2] As when Newton said ‘I stand on the shoulders of giants.’ [3] Such as the bread and wine of communion. [4] And so is not affected by their intellectual capacity – a child may have faith and so may a university don. [5] As when we meet someone for the first time and make judgements about his character based on only a brief acquaintance. [6] David Hume, Philosopher, ‘An enquiry concerning human understanding’. [7]   Acts 17 v 16 ff.

The Birth of Psychoanalysis - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 34 Words: 10061 Downloads: 10 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Abstract This thesis returns to the original case histories that Freud wrote on the patients he treated for hysteria. Here in these early works, the beginnings of psychoanalytical theory take shape in the acceptance of purely psychological theories of hysteria. Catharsis leads to the first inklings of repression which requires the use of free association, which again leads into Freuds attempt to explain the strange neuroses he sees through seduction theory, which is again transformed as his thinking moves on. Through Anna O, Frau Emmy von N. and Dora, Freud discovered the seeds of what would become his all-encompassing theory of the human psyche. Modern reinterpretations (e.g. Rosenbaum Muroff, 1984) of those early cases that form the basis of modern psychoanalysis have come and gone, but the original texts remain as historical testament to the fermenting of those fundamental ideas. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Birth of Psychoanalysis" essay for you Create order Introduction Hysteria has been a hugely popular subject for research in psychoanalysis and in the history of ideas. Its roots are clearly signalled by the Greek word from which the word comes: uterus. Indeed the uterus was seen by Egyptians as a mobile organism that could move about of its own will when it chose to do so this caused the disturbances only seen (or acknowledged) in women. Treatments for this disease included trying to entice the uterus back into the body with the use of attractive-smelling substances as well as the driving down of the uterus from above by the eating of noxious substances. Just under four thousand years later, the formulation and treatment of hysterics had barely improved. The history of hysteria shows how it has often been seen as a physical disorder, rather than a mental one. Borossa (2001) describes some of the most common symptoms of hysteria as involving paralysis of the limbs, coughing, fainting, the loss of speech and parallel to this the sudden proficiency in another language. The change of viewpoint that lead up to Freuds analysis was slow in coming, and, as Bernheimer (1985) describes, only showed the first signs of changing in the seventeenth century with the first questions being raised that perhaps hysteria had its origins in a mental disturbance of some kind. Antecedent to Freuds interest in hysteria, it was the clinical neurologist, Charcot, who had a great influence on the field and accepted, by his methods, a more psychological explanation. Although sexual factors had long been implicated in the aetiology of hysteria (Ellenberger, 1970), Charcot did not agree that they were a sine qua non although he did maintain that they played an important part. He treated patients using a form of hypnosis and eventually his formulation of how hysteria was produced and treated was closely intertwined with the hypnosis itself. It was this use of hypnosis that interested Freud and it was the implication of sexual factors in hysteria that was eventually to become influential. It seemed that hysteria and hypnosis might offer Freud the chance to investigate the link between mind and body (Schoenwald, 1956). Anna O: The First Psychoanalytical Patient The literature often describes Anna O as the first ever patient of psychoanalysis. As it is notoriously difficult to define precisely what psychoanalysis might mean because of its shifting nature through time, this is a claim that is clearly interpretational. Still, the fact that this claim is made raises the interest into precisely what it was that marked out Anna Os treatment and the theories accompanying it from what had gone before. Although Anna O was not a patient of Freud, but a patient of his close colleague at the time, Joseph Breuer, he took a great interest in her case and its treatment, and from it flowed some of the foundational aspects of psychoanalysis both through the analysis of this case and Freuds reaction and reinterpretation of it. One of the reasons that Freud was interested in Anna O was that she represented an extremely unusual case of hysteria. Anna O had first been taken ill while she had been taking care of her dying father. At first she suffered from a harsh cough which soon expanded into a range of other perplexing symptoms. Freud Breuer (1991) describe these symptoms as going through four separate stages. The first stage, the latent incubation, occurred while she was nursing her dying father she had become weak, was not eating and would spend much of the afternoons sleeping, which was then unexpectedly followed by a period of excited activity in the evenings. The second stage, which had begun around the time Breuer started treating her, contained a strange confluence of symptoms. Her vision was affected by a squint, she could no longer move any of the extremities on the right side of her body. The third stage, which roughly coincided with the death of her father, heralded alternating states of somnam bulism with relative normality. The fourth stage, according to Breuer, is the slow leaking away of these symptoms up until June 1882, almost two years after she had first come to see her physician. The question is, how had these symptoms been interpreted and what had Breuer done in claiming to effect a cure? It is in the case of Anna O that the most basic elements of a new talking cure can be seen. As told by Breuer, it is a treatment that grew organically, as if by its own power, as he continued to see the patient. Often, in the afternoons, when the patient would habitually fall into an auto-hypnotic state, she would utter odd words or phrases, which, when questioned by those around her, would become elaborated into stories, sometimes taking the form of fairytales. These stories told to Breuer, changed in character over the period of Anna Os treatment, moving from those that were light and poetic, through to those that contained dark and frightening imagery. The unusual thing about these stories was that after they were told, it was as though a demon had been released from the patient and she became calmer and open to reason, cheerful even, often for a period of twenty-four hours afterwards. There seemed to be, staring Breuer in the face, some kind of connection between the stories that Anna O told him and the symptoms which she was manifesting. It was here that Freud was to find the roots of a purely psychological explanation of hysteria. Breuer describes numerous examples of this connection. On one occasion Anna O appeared to be suffering from an uncontrollable thirst and was given to demanding water, although when it was brought, she would refuse to touch it. After six weeks of this continuing, one day, again in an auto-hypnotic state, she started to tell a story about a friend who had allowed her dog to drink out of a glass. This had apparently caused the patient considerable distress and seemed to have led to pent-up anger, which was expressed on this occasion to Breuer. Afterwards Breuer was surprised to find that her previous craving and then abhorrence of water had disappeared. Other similar connections between symptoms and a story told by the patient were also s een by Breuer so that eventually he came up with the theory that the patient could be cured systematically by going through the symptoms to find the event that had caused their onset. Once the event had been described, as long as it was with sufficient emotional vigour, the patient would show remission of that symptom. It was by this method that Breuer claimed to have effected a cure of Anna O over the period of the treatment. It is from this case, although not in the immediate reporting by Breuer, that some of the most fundamental principles of psychoanalysis begin to form. An element of the story that has now passed into psychoanalytic legend, with some accepting its truth while others rejecting it, provides a more dramatic ending to the therapeutic relationship than that presented by Breuer. According to Freud (1970) in his letters, he pieced together an alternative account of what had happened at the end of Anna Os therapy. According to Freud, Breuer had been treating Anna O in the way he had discovered, as previously described, and had finally reached the point where her symptoms had been removed. Later that day he was called back to his patient to find her in considerable apparent pain in her abdomen. When she was asked what was wrong she replied that, Dr. Bs child is coming! This immediately sent Breuer away from her at the highest speed as he was not able to cope with this new revelation. He then p assed her onto a colleague for further treatment as he had already realised that his wife was jealous of his treatment of Anna O and this new revelation only compounded the problem. Forrester (1990) draws attention to the fact that Breuer acknowledged the importance of sexuality in the causes of neuroses. But despite this, he backed away from Anna Os case as soon as it came to the surface. As Forrester (1990) points out, Freud sees this as Breuers mistake and sees in it the birth of a psychoanalysis, especially one of its most important aspects: transference, and more specifically: sexual transference. Through the way that Breuer describes Anna Os progress in his new type of therapy, the path which the theory of hysteria and its treatment takes gradually emerges. Although Anna Os case was reported later it was Breuer Freud (1893) that used her case as the basis for their theory of hysteria. Breuer Freud (1893) state that they believe that the symptoms of hysteria have, at their root cause, some kind of causal event, perhaps occurring many years before the symptoms expose themselves. The patient is unlikely to easily reveal what this event is simply because they are not consciously aware of what it is, or that there is a causal connection. They are not worried by the seeming disproportionate nature of the precipitating event and subsequent symptoms. In fact they welcome this disproportionate nature as a defining characteristic of hysteria. Their analysis likens the root cause, or pathogenesis, of hysteria to that caused by a traumatic neurosis perhaps similar to what we would now call post-traumatic stress disorder. The patient has, therefore, suffered a psychical trauma that manifests itself in this hysteria. The idea that the psychical trauma simply has a precipitating effect on the symptoms is dismissed by the authors referring to the evidence they have from the case studies of the remarkable progress their patients made after the memory of the psychical trauma has been exorcised through its explication and re-experiencing. Importantly, in defining the problem, Breuer Freud (1893) see the symptoms as a kind of failure of reaction to the original event. The memory of the event can only fade if the reaction to that event has not been suppressed. And it is here that there is a clear precursor to ideas central to later Freudian theory about the nature and causes of repression. In normal reactions to psychical traumas, the authors talk of a cathartic effect resulting in a release of the energy. The reverse of this, the suppression of catharsis (Freeman, 1972), is seen here as the cause of the symptoms adequately evidenced by the new treatment of a kind of delayed catharsis that appears to release the patient from their symptoms. What, then, are the mechanisms by which a psychical trauma of some kind is not reacted to sufficiently? Two answers are provided here, the first that because of the circumstances of the trauma, it was not possible to form a reaction in other words the reactions is suppressed. The second is that a reaction may not have been possible due to the mental state of the person at that time for example during a period of paralysing fear. The circumstances in which the failure of a reaction occurs is also instrumental in the burying of these thoughts and feelings and helps to explain why the patient themselves is not able to access them in the normal ways. Frau Emmy von N. Freuds interest in hysteria and in hypnosis was certainly piqued by both Charcot and Breuer and having collaborated on the latters work with Anna O including the belief that he had found a theory of practical benefit it was only a matter of time before he became further involved in the treatment of hysteria himself. Reported as the second case history in The Studies on Hysteria, (Breuer Freud, 1991) a patient of Freuds, Frau Emmy von N., exhibited symptoms that typified hysteria and Freud resolved to treat her. He reports that the patient was 40 years old, was from a good family and of high education and intelligence. She had been widowed at a young age, leaving her to look after her two children this she ascribed as the cause of her current malady. Freud describes her first meeting as being continually interrupted by the patient breaking off, and suddenly displaying signs of disgust and horror on her face while telling him to, Keep still! and other similar remonstrations. Apart from this the patient also had a series of tics, some facial, but the most pronounced being a clacking sound which littered her utterances. Freuds initial treatment was more physical than mental. She was told to take warm baths and be given massages. This was combined with hypnosis in which Freud simply suggested that she sleep well and that her symptoms would lessen. This was helped by the fact that Freud reports that Frau Emmy von N. was an extremely good hypnotic subject he only had to raise his finger and make a few simple suggestions to put her into a trance. Freud wonders whether this compliance is due to previous exposure to hypnosis and a desire to please. A week later Freud asked his patient why she was so easily frightened. She replied with a story about a traumatic experience that had occurred when she was younger her older brothers and sisters had thrown dead animals at her. As she described these stories to Freud, he reports that she was, panting for breath as well as displaying obvious difficulty with the emotions that she was dealing with. After these emotions have been expressed, she became calmer and more peaceful. Freud also uses touch to reinforce his suggestion that these unnerving images have been removed. Under hypnosis, Freud continued to elicit these stories that demonstrated why she was so often nervous. She explained to Freud that she had once had a maidservant who told her stories of life in an asylum including beatings and patients being tied to chairs. Freud then explained to her that this was not the usual situation in asylums. She had also apparently seen hallucinations at one point, seeing the same person in tw o places and being transfixed by it. While she had been nursing her dying brother, who was taking large quantities of morphine for the pain he was in, he would frequently grab her suddenly. Freud saw this as part of a pattern of her being seized against her will and resolved to investigate it further. It was a few days after this that quite a significant point in the therapy came. Emmy von N. was again explaining about the frightening stories of the asylum and Freud stopped himself from correcting her, intuitively realising that he had to let her give full vent to her fears, without redirecting her course. This is perhaps a turning point in the way in which Freud treated his patient, made clearer by the historical context in which this scene operates. While still seen as authority figures now, physicians were much stronger authority figures then. This combined with the greater imbalance of power between men and women would have meant that the patient would be naturally hesitant about taking any control over their own treatment. Forrester (1990) sees this as a shift in the pattern of authority between the doctor and the patient that originated in Breuers treatment of Anna O a move from the telling the patient what to do, to listening to what the patient has to say. Forrester (1990 ) constructs the relationship that Freud began to build with Emmy von N. as more of a framework of authority within which the patient was able to express her thoughts and feelings to the doctor and in this sense the doctors job is to help the patient keep up this outpouring of stories. At this stage of the development of the therapy, the facilitation of the story-telling is being achieved by hypnosis, although later Freud was to move away from this. How great the shift in the power balance was, it is difficult to tell a this distance, but what is clear from the case report is that Emmy von N.s case provided a much more convoluted series of psychical traumas and symptoms than that presented by Anna O. While Anna Os symptoms seemed to match the traumatic events rather neatly, Emmy von Ns mind was not nearly as well organised. At one point Freud discovers that taking the lift to his office causes his patient a considerable amount of stress. To try and examine where this comes from he explores whether she has had any previous traumatic experiences in lifts a logical first step within the theoretical framework. Coincidentally, it appears, the patient mentions that she is very worried about her daughter in relation to elevators. The next logical step then should be that talking about this fear should release the affect and lead to catharsis, but this is not what Freud finds. The next part of the puzzle is revealed when he finds out t hat she is currently menstruating, then finally the last part falls into place when he finds out that as her daughter has been suffering ovarian problems, she has had to travel in a lift in order to meet with her doctor. After some deliberation Freud realises that there is in fact a false connection between the patients menstruation and the worry at her daughter using a lift. It is this confusion of connections that Freud begins to realise is a form of defence to the traumatic thoughts. Freuds Treatment of Hysteria In the final part of Studies in Hysteria Freud sets out his theory of hysteria and what he has learnt about its treatment. Not only does this part of the book recap some of the themes already discussed but it also highlights some future direction in which Freuds work would travel. Two key signposts are seen: first in his stance on hypnotism, and secondly in his view on what constitutes hysteria. In an attempt to be of benefit to patients with hysteria, who he believed this treatment would help, he tried to treat as many as possible. The problem for him was how to tell the difference between a patient with hysteria and one without. Freud chose an interesting solution to what might have been a protracted problem of diagnosis. He simply treated patients who seemed to have hysteria and let the results of that treatment speak for themselves. What this immediately did was to widen out the object of his enquiry to neuroses in general. Picking up on the lightly touched theme of sexual transf erence between Breuer and Anna O mentioned earlier, Freud made his feelings about the roots of neurotic problems quite clear, and in the process set the agenda for psychoanalysis for the next century or more. He believed that one of the primal factors in neuroses lay in sexual matters. In particular Freud came to acknowledge that peoples neuroses rarely came in a pure form, as the early and almost impossibly neat case of Anna O had signposted, and that in fact people were more of a mixed bag. Looking back through the cases reported in Studies on Hysteria Freud explains that he came to see a sexual undercurrent in his notes that had not been at the forefront of his mind when he had treated the patients. Especially in the case of Anna O as already noted Freud felt Breuer had missed a trick. What these ideas seem to be adding up to is almost a rejection of hysteria, if not as a separate diagnosis, certainly as a category of disease practically amenable to treatment. Freud, however, is defensive about rejecting the idea of hysteria as a separate diagnosis, despite the fact that that is the direction in which his thoughts are heading. At this stage he believes it can be treated as a separate part of a patients range of symptoms and the effect of this treatment will be governed by its relative importance overall. Those patients, like Anna O, who have relatively pure cases of hysteria will respond well to the cathartic treatment, while those diluted cases will not. The second key signpost for the future of psychoanalysis was Freuds use of hypnosis. What he found was that many of the patients he saw were simply not hypnotisable Freud claims unwillingness on their part but other writers are of the opinion that he was simply not that good at it (Forrester, 1990). This was a problem for Freud because Breuers formulation of the treatment for hysteria required that events were recollected that were not normally available to a person. Hypnosis had originally proved a good method and indeed in Anna Os case the only method for gaining access to these past events. In response, Freud now turned away from hypnosis to develop his own techniques for eliciting the patients traumatic events. These were quite simple: he insisted that the patient remember what the traumatic event was, and if they still could not, he would ask the patient to lie down and close their eyes nowadays one of the archetypal images of patient and analyst. Freud saw the patients relu ctance of his patients to report their traumatic events as a one of the biggest hurdles in his coalescing form of therapy. He came up with the idea that there was some psychical force within the patient that stopped the memories from being retrieved. From the patients he had treated, he had found that the memories that were being held back were often of an embarrassing or shameful nature. If was for this reason that the patient was activating psychical defence mechanisms. At this stage he hoped to be able to show in the future that it was this defence or repulsion of the traumatic event to the depths of the memory that was causing so much psychical pain to the patient. Overcoming this psychical force, Freud found, was not as simple as insisting, and he developed some further techniques. Patients would easily drift off their point or simply dry up and it needed more powerful persuasion to return them to the traumatic event. One particular technique he found extremely useful and would almost invariably use it when treating patients. This involved placing his hand on the patients head and instructing them that when they feel the pressure they will also see an image of their traumatic event. Having assured the patient that whatever they see, they should not worry that this image is inappropriate or too shameful to discuss, then they are asked to attempt a description of the image. Freud believed that this system worked by distracting the patient, in a similar way as hypnosis, from their conscious searching for the psychical trauma and allowed their mind to float free. Even using the new technique of applying pressure, it did not provide direct access to the psychical trauma. What Freud found was that it tended to signal a jumping off point or a way-station, somewhere on the way to or from the trauma. Sometimes the image produced would provide a new starting point from which the patient could work, sometimes it fitted into the flow of the subject of discussion. Occasionally the new image would bring a long-forgotten idea to the patients mind which would surprise them and initially seem to be unrelated, but later turn out to have a connection. Freud was so pleased with his new pressure technique that, in complex cases, he would often use it continuously on the patient. This procedure would bring to light memories that had been hitherto completely forgotten, as well as new connections between these memories and even, sometimes, thoughts that the patient doesnt even believe to be their own. Freud is careful to point out that although his pressure technique was useful, there were a number of very strong forms of defence that stopped him gaining easy access to the patients psychical trauma. He often found that in the first instance, applying pressure by his hand to the patient would not work, but when he insisted to the patient that it would work the next time, it often would. Still, the patient would sometimes immediately reinterpret or, indeed, begin to edit what was seen, thus making the reporting much less useful. Freud makes it clear that sometimes the most useful observations or memories of the patient are those that they consider to be of least use or relevance. Also, the memories will tend to emerge in a haphazard fashion, only later, and with the skill of the analyst, being fitted together into a coherent picture. Freud refers to this as a kind of censoring of the traumatic events, as though it can only be glimpsed in a mirror or partially occluded around a corne r. Slowly but sure the analyst begins to build up a picture with the accretion of material. There is nothing, Freud believed that is not relevant every piece of information is a link in the chain, another clue to the event that has traumatised the psyche. Another major component of psychoanalysis makes its first appearance in the Studies on Hysteria. Freud describes a final defence or block against the work of treating hysteria in the very relationship between the patient and doctor. Indeed, Freud sees this defence is sure to arise, and perhaps the most difficult defence of all to overcome. The first of the three circumstances in which it may arise is a simple, probably small, breakdown in the relationship between the physician and patient. It might be that the patient is unsure about the physicians techniques or alternatively has felt slighted in the treatment in some way. This can be rectified with a sensitive discussion. The second of the three circumstances occurs when the patient becomes fearful that they will lose their independence because of a reliance on their treating physician. As almost all of Freuds patients who had hysteria were women, this could be conceived as a sexual reliance. The third circumstance is where the pati ent begins to take the problem that they are trying to resolve and transfer it onto the physician, thereby seeing their problem there instead of where it really exists. Freud provides the straightforward example of the sexual transference of a female patient of his who suddenly developed the vision of kissing him. He reports that the patient could not be analysed any further until this block had been addressed. The mechanism by which this transference happens, he posits, is that the patient creates a false connection between the compulsion which is the basis for their treatment and the therapist, rather than its original recipient. In treating these defences Freud makes it clear that the main aim should be to make the patient aware that this problem exists, and then once they are aware of it, the problem is largely dealt with. The challenge, then, is getting the patient to admit to these potentially embarrassing feelings. The Aetiology of Hysteria The development of Freuds theory of the aetiology of hysteria provides one of the most insightful, and sometimes controversial, areas of his work. The formation of the theory, like the work on its treatment, provided another important testing ground for some of the basic elements of what would later become psychoanalysis. Previous authors, including Breuer in the joint work with Freud in Studies on Hysteria, gave great weight to the heredity factors in the causes of hysteria. Freud meanwhile acknowledged these ideas, but in Heredity and the Aetiology of the Neuroses (Freud, 1896b) set out the three factors he believed were important and began to formulate a new theory. The causes of hysteria could be broken down into: (1) Preconditions this would include hereditary factors, (2) concurrent causes which are generalised causes and (3) specific causes, these being specific to the hysteria itself. It is in these specific causes he believed he had found an important contribution to aetiology of the condition. One of the common factors of the patients Freud was seeing, and the one he was coming to see as defining, was in their sexual problems. He reports that while many suffered from a range of different symptoms such as constipation, dyspepsia and fatigue, almost all of them had some kind of sexual problems. These ranged from the inability to achieve orgasm to a more general inability to have a satisfying sexually relationship. Freud saw this as a very significant problem as he maintains that the nervous systems needs to be regularly purged of sexual tension. This pattern across his patients, and the development of his theory of traumatic psychical events, led him to wonder what past events could have caused the sexual dysfunction the patients with hysteria were manifesting. Radically, and expecting no small amount of opposition to the idea, Freud advanced the theory that these neuroses were caused by sexual abuse before the age of sexual maturity. Of the thirteen cases that Freud had tre ated at the time of the paper, all of them had been subject to sexual abuse at an early age. However, Freud does make it clear that the information about their sexual lives is not obtained without some considerable pressure, and it only emerges in a fragmentary way that has later to be pieced together by the therapist. At this early stage of the theory, Freud believed that the sexual abuse left a psychical trace and formed the traumatic experience which was locked away in the depths of the mind. These ideas were much further developed and expanded on in Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence (Freud, 1896a). Earlier Freud had grouped together hysteria with hallucinatory states and obsessions (Freud, 1894) and had begun to formulate the idea that all of these conditions had a common aetiology. In particular, Freud felt these were all part of an area where the ideas of psychological defences and psychological repression were important. Freud had found that patients he had seen had suffered sexual abuse sometimes as early as two years old and up to the age of ten, which he drew as an artificial cut-off point. What other theorists saw as a heredity, Freud saw as the confluence of factors for example if a boy had been sexually abused when he was five then it was likely that his brother would have been abused by the same person. Rather than seeing heredity as a separate factor in hysteria, he saw the sexual abuse as a replacement for heredity, sometimes exclusively, as the root cause in itself. The theory shows an interesting divergence in the analysis of obsessional neuroses. Here, Freud believed that the obsessional neuroses were caused by a sexual activity in childhood rather than the sexual passivity typical of abuse. These ideas linked in neatly to the greater preponderance of obsessional neuroses in males. A logical division is therefore made with the females, the apparently more passive sex suffering from hysteria, while the apparently more active sex suffering from obsessions. In searching for the aetiology of these two conditions, it is here that Freud prefigures his future thinking on stages of sexual development by introducing the idea that the development of neuroses and/or hysteria is/are dependent on when the sexual abuse occurs in the developmental stages of the child, with sexual maturation providing the cut-off point. In The Aetiology of Hysteria Freud again makes clear his divergence from his mentor, Charcot, in claiming that heredity is not the most important factor in the aetiology of hysteria (Freud 1896c). Freud (1896c) travels back through the life-histories of the patients he has treated looking for the original source of the psychical trauma, discounting all sexual experiences at puberty and later. It is only in pre-pubescent children, when the potential for harm is at its greatest that there lies a sufficient cause. Freuds theory revolves around the idea that at a pre-pubescent age a child, being pre-sexual, is unable to understand or process sexual information at that time and so it is only through the later memory of the incident that the hysterical symptoms form. A number of lines of evidence are produced to account for the veracity of his findings, strongly refuting the idea that he placed the memories in his patients by suggestion, most of these founded in the manner in which his pat ients divulged the experiences to him. Patients were, for example, extremely reticent about their experiences and were often largely unaware of the import of what they were explaining. Freud claimed that the sexual abuse of children was much greater than had previously been thought, relying somewhat on the findings of Stekel (1895). Finally, Freuds definition of sexual abuse included those who had apparently been in loving relationships with older carers or relatives, and those children who had sexual relationships with other children at a very young age. Returning, then, to the breakdown of the aetiology of hysteria into three categories (Freud 1896b) the hereditary causes of hysteria are replaced by sexual abuse, but what about the specific causes? At this stage, Freud is silent on this matter, and directs much of his attention to what will become a more important aspect of psychoanalysis: the delineation between conscious and unconscious thought process and the dramatic effect that unconscious thought processes can have on behaviour. Especially by todays standards these kinds of argument in favour of the seduction hypothesis seem quite weak being based on a small sample size and very subjective interpretations of the patients behaviour (Schimek, 1987). There is also now considerable debate about the veracity of Freuds claim that all these patients he treated had a history of childhood sexual abuse. This includes, for example, Borch-Jacobsen (1996a) who claims that the technique that Freud used of placing his hand on the forehead was effectively hypnosis and so his patients were highly suggestible. Borch-Jacobsen (1996b) in a full-length book account goes on to make the claim that Freud and Breuer manufactured the evidence necessary to prove their theory. These kinds of arguments that Freud made-up the evidence, whether consciously or subconsciously, are highly controversial (Gleaves Hernandez, 1999). Especially in the case of Anna O, as Edinger (1968) reports that all the records of her life for that period were destroyed. Despite this, it is clear that the seduction theory forms an important developmental point in Freuds theories, and is important for this reason alone. More widely, Forrester (1990) maintains that, with hindsight, and for psychoanalytic theory, it is probably not that important whether his patients had been abused as children or whether they had consented. The theory was about how the feelings associated with these kinds of thoughts affected a person whether they were real events or not became less important. Bearing in mind these ideas and the pressure which Freud clearly expected and received as a result of them, it is unsurprising that he abandoned the seduction theory in its original formulation not long after. According to letters he wrote to Fliess (Masson, 1985) Freud first showed his lack of confidence in the seduction theory in 1897, giving a variety of reasons. Firstly, he could not find any evidence for the seduction theory in a satisfactory conclusion to the analyses he was conducting. Secondly, in all cases Freud found that the father had to be accused of some perversion including, he states, his own. Thirdly, and perhaps most tellingly, he states that he believes the unconscious finds it difficult to discern fact from fiction. This abandonment of the line between reality and fantasy forms one of the most important turning points in Freuds thinking on hysteria as it began to widen out into a more general theory of the mind. Over the following few years before the next case of hysteria that he documented, Freud was to make some considerable leaps forward in his theory of infantile sexuality. He was not to put these into print until he wrote the Three essays on the theory of sexuality in 1905 (Freud, 1905b). Here is laid out how he now believed that the memories of infantile sexual abuse were often, in fact, fantasies resulting from the sexual desire of children themselves. Ferenczi (1980) was later to disagree with this and caused the split between the two founders of psychoanalysis. Still, this famous abandonment of the seduction theory, represents an important shift in the development of psychoanalysis as the role of the unconscious in behaviour is more deeply acknowledged but still this development would not have been possible without the original proposition of seduction theory. It was in Freuds next case history that of Dora that these new ideas began to see their application in a new, deeper lev el of analysis. Dora By the time Freud came to write Fragment of an analysis of a case of hysteria, (Freud, 1905a) describing the famous case of Dora, who he had treated four years previously, he had already completed The Interpretation of Dreams (Freud, 1900) and, not just in the case of infantile sexual experience, was less interested in the differences between reality and fantasy (Fine, 1962). A diagnosis of hysteria was still an important factor in the treatment despite the developments in his theory away from its more isolated corals. Hysteria, its causes and its symptoms, were still largely a mystery, and it was in reporting another case a few years later that Freud hoped to gain more insight. He was particularly interested in reporting a case that did not seem excessively unusual in any way as he believed that it was in the more typical cases that he was more likely to find the common cause of hysteria. Reporting the case of Dora, Freud is careful to include a full case history of the complexities of her familys relations, which are now be reviewed to enable a clear view of Freuds attempts to disentangle them using psychoanalysis. Dora, in fact the daughter of Breuer, was an 18-year-old girl who had recently changed quite radically in her personality and had become depressed and disengaged from the world, finally culminating in a brief loss of consciousness and an admission of suicidal ideas that heralded the start of her treatment. Freud found out from Breuer that Dora had recently reported that she had received sexual advances from Herr K., a man who had previously been like an uncle to her. While these events might have been traumatic, and fit with the ideas outlined in Studies on Hysteria, Freud maintains that they do not explain the symptoms that Dora had been suffering from. Freud then began his now characteristic journey back through the patients sexual history. Dora told him that there had been an earlier occasion when she was 14 years old when Herr K. had kissed her unexpectedly to which she reported an overwhelming feeling of disgust followed by a continuing desire to avoid the sexual aggressor. Freu d interprets this as an unusual, in fact hysterical reaction, to what should have been an exciting sexual contact for her. In the first instance Freud examines Doras family background and early experiences. Freud describes that Doras brother is perhaps the closest she has for someone in the family to look up to and emulate. But this connection faded as the brother tended to support the mother in family disputes and Freud refers to his growing new ideas on infantile sexuality by ascribing this change to the sexual attraction between mother and son, and the parallel attraction between father and daughter. Freud is more equivocal in this case history of Dora about the aetiology of hysteria, explaining that her family background, especially on her fathers side, is implicated. This presents a shift in thinking away from the position in Studies on Hysteria, which tended to downplay the effects of heredity, even replacing them with the early pre-pubescent sexual experiences. In analysing Doras mother, Freud is keen to pin the label of a housewifes psychosis on her, as he believes she is obsessed with cleanlines s to the extent that it is hardly possible to enjoy the house properly. Perhaps because of this, Dora had little respect for her mother and would frequently criticise her. Freud describes that Dora developed three symptoms after the sexual advance from Herr K., she preferred not to go near men who were involved in passionate encounters with women, she had a sense of disgust and finally she had developed a feeling of pressure in her upper body. Freud makes a clear interpretation of these symptoms, stating that the pressure may be a result of the displacement of Herr K.s erect penis that she may have felt against her lower body during the kiss. The avoidance of men who are displaying sexual behaviour, even of the indirect form, is phobic behaviour that is to be expected. Finally the disgust is seen by Freud as resulting from repression related to her infantile sexuality a reference to his emerging new theories. Freud draws the attention to the dual function of the penis in excreting waste and as a sexual organ, making the link stronger between the sex and disgust, as well as making the point that male genitalia are important in the aetiology of hysteria . After Herr K. some profound changes had occurred in the way that Freud saw the relationships between her parents and the K.s, a situation already complicated by considerable intrigue. Up until that time, not only had Herr K. been making advances towards her, but her father was also involved in an affair with Frau K., a situation that both men involved had done their best to avoid mention or even notice, despite probably both being aware. While previously Dora had also turned a blind eye, now it seemed that she had become extremely critical of her father and had begun to ascribe a pernicious and underhanded nature to him. At times she felt as though her own father had turned a blind eye to Herr K.s advances towards Dora as recompense for the relationship he was having with Frau K.. Although this seemed to Freud to be an exaggeration of the situation only arrived at when Doras emotions were extreme, he did see in Herr K.s behaviour a convenient avoidance of the truth of what was happen ing. It was only with Herr Ks most recent advance that Doras thinking had changed to see the view of herself as a party in this exchange, instead of her former complicity. In contrast to her darkening attitude towards her father, Doras relationship with Frau K. became closer. Despite the attempts of her governess to sour their relationship and plant seeds of hatred, Dora had the highest respect for Frau K. Dora had realised that the governess was in fact in love with her father and realised that Frau K. was her rival, which was the reason for her antipathy towards Frau K. As Freud began to go deeper into Doras feelings for Herr K. it became clear there was some evidence that she might be in love with him. They both shared a deep interest in Herr K.s children, who received a mothering influence from Dora rather than from Frau K., who was by all accounts a disinterested mother. A visiting cousin who had seen them together had told her that by the way she behaved around him she must be in love him. Later in the analysis Dora was to admit that she might have been in love with him but that the relationship had immediately soured after he had tried to kiss h er. Examining Doras early experiences of waxing and waning illness, Freud looked for further evidence of Doras relationship with Herr K. within her symptoms. He draws a parallel with Frau K.s behaviour of becoming ill when her husband returned from travelling so that she could avoid their physical relationship a case of illness as a form of leverage which Dora may have learnt from. At an early age Dora had suffered from fits of coughing as well as aphonia: the loss of her voice. Using the growing techniques of psychoanalysis that stated that there is no such thing as a coincidence, Freud found that her aphonia lasted for about the same period as Herr K. was away and used this as evidence that she was in love with him and demonstrating it through illness, in just the same way that Frau K. was demonstrating her hatred of her husband by being ill when he was there. While Herr K. was away, Dora would write postcards to him and clearly felt that seeing as she could not use the mode of s peaking to the person who was most important to her, she need not use speech at all. Where, then, is Freud heading with this analysis? Is he attempting to generalise a direct connection between the aphonia and loss of a loved one in hysterics? No, but Freud does highlight the importance of the, perhaps arbitrary, connection between some psychical trauma and some physical symptoms again the same kind of connections originally made in The Studies on Hysteria. It is not the symptom in and of itself that carries the significance, it is the connection between trauma and symptom that carries the meaning. The immediate problem presented by the sheer arbitrary nature of the connections between symptoms and traumas means that finding them is like looking for a needle in haystack exactly what Freud found with one of his early hysterical patients, Frau Emmy Von M. Freud discovered a number of methods for teasing out the connection and it is these that lie at the centre of his technique at the time. Most clearly the relevant hysterical symptoms can be seen in their repetitiou s nature it is through repeating that they can gain their meaning. The only other way of making the connection is through luck: as the patient recounts their experience, the analyst is continually looking for clues as to how it might relate to the symptoms. Using these techniques Freud suggested to Dora that the cause of her symptoms was the fact that she was trying to cause a rift between her father and Frau K.. He suggests that a persons motives in hysteria cannot be seen in simple terms and especially in the case of Dora they help to explain how hysterical symptoms can be maintained over a period of time long after the first influence. Freud argues that while in the first instance the symptoms are alien invaders, over time they become incorporated into the economy of consciousness, finding their place and their purpose, such that the analyst will find it difficult to remove them. The introduction of motives represents a step forward in the theory, as previous explanations of the longevity of symptoms in hysteria had relied on the power of the original psychical event. Freud is now using his theories about the conscious and unconscious mind (Freud, 1900) together with the ideas about the motivation in the treatment of hysteria. He now classifies the symptoms of hysteria as arising from unconscious motivations that must be brought to consciousness. Freud makes the point that it is easy to make light of the symptoms of hysteria precisely for this reason; one day, when the unconscious motivations are addressed either intentionally or accidentally, the symptoms spontaneously clear up, leading people to suspect the patients complaint was not real. Freud makes the point that this is simply the nature of hysteria and what makes its treatment difficult. On top of this, Freud states that, in his experience, it is extremely rare for a patient to exhibit a one-to-one relationship between symptoms and mental processes, with Anna O proving the miraculous exception to the rule. What this point shows is further evidence that Freuds thinking is moving deeper into the mind, giving credence and granting power to the unconscious motivations in peoples behaviour a vital element of psychoanalysis. Again, in treating hysteria, Freud emphasises the importance of the discussion of sexual matters, even stating that it is impossible to treat hysteria without their discussion. Returning to Doras coughing, Freud makes an interesting diagnosis of its cause. He maintains that it is the result of an unconscious fantasy of oral sex with Herr K. the tickling in her throat being the resulting symptom. Freud has already found that Dora understands and has heard of the practice of oral sex and when presented with the theory, assents to its possibility and promptly the cough ceases, although Freud is loath to claim a success as her cough has often proved intermittent. In coming to this conclusion Freud draws further on his theory of infantile sexuality, relating that Dora, as a child, would sit with her brother sucking her thumb and pulling her brothers ear. It was in The Interpretation of Dreams (Freud, 1900) that Freud first laid out his ideas about the attraction between parent and child, that he had likened to the legend of Oedipus. It is here that Freud claims the root of Doras newfound critical attitude towards her father lies. Dora was particularly close to her father when younger and this combined with the latent sexual attraction meant that the arrival of Frau K. on the scene gave rise to feelings of bitterness towards her father it was not so much her fathers wife that had been pushed out of the way by Frau K., but Dora herself. When he explains this to Dora, she does not agree but goes on to tell an analogous story about a person she knew who was in love her father at a young age, this, Freud takes to be an assent to the validity of his argument from the unconscious. And so is revealed another of Freuds techniques for uncovering signposts to the unconscious mind. Freuds case histories of hysteria have more and more closely concentrated on the sexual impulse as an important factor, often as sexuality has been suppressed it will re-emerge powerfully in feelings for both opposite-sex and same-sex objects. This is the case for Dora, as Freud begins to discover her feelings for Frau K. Freud talks specifically at this stage about underlying currents of homosexuality and dispositions towards it that are more often seen in hysterical patients especially young men and women. The way in which Dora talks about Frau K. tends to show an unconscious love for her which is masked by her current conscious bad feelings towards her engagement in the relationship with her father. One of the new techniques of psychoanalysis that Freud uses in Doras case is dream analysis. The analysis of Doras dreams form the central point of Freuds case history and Freud uses these dreams to attempt to convince Dora of the conclusions that he has already come to in the formulation of her case laid out so far. The first dream involves the house being on fire and her father refusing to allow her mother to retrieve her jewel-case before they leave. Through associations, he draws out firstly information about Doras adolescent bed-wetting, which he associated with masturbation, and secondly about an early incident involving a jewel-case Freud makes the point that the German word for a jewel-case is also a slang word for the female genitals. Free association is, by now, an established part of Freuds therapeutic repertoire. As described by Bollas (2000) this form of free association relies on both the analysts subconscious as well as the subconscious connections made by the patient . Putting these disparate elements together Freud interpreted the dream as a reversal of what is really upsetting her unconscious. Freud maintains that Dora is really trying to avoid or suppress the attraction to Herr K. and she is doing this by remembering the love for her father, which she expresses in a dream in which he saves her. In her second dream her mother told her that her father had died and she was trying to reach the station to get home, but kept meeting obstacles along the way. Later she was at home and then told by the maidservant that all the others were already at the cemetery for her fathers funeral she then proceeded upstairs to read, not feeling at all sad. Freud then elicited some associations that he saw as relevant to the dream. Firstly that of a time when she had stood in front of a picture of Madonna for two hours. Secondly there was a letter in the dream that mirrored the suicide note that Dora had left for her parents. Thirdly there was a likeness between the wood in the dream and that where Herr K. had made his sexual advance. Freud analysed this dream in the following terms: the Madonna, as a virgin, clearly represented Dora and her concern at first sexual intercourse. Her fathers death on the other hand meant that she was relieved of the tension of their attraction and the memory of sexual feelings and that she would be free of her hysteria. In some ways she wanted revenge against him, for the attraction and for how she had been betrayed by his relationship with Frau K. and his death in the dream fulfilled this wish. The likeness of the wood to that where Herr K. made his advance and other aspects of the dream led Freud to posit that Dora regretted that she had not accepted his sexual advance. Many have reanalysed these dreams in different ways, not least of these writers was Freud himself. Ramas (1985), for example, explains how Freud returned thirty years later to the case of Dora with the benefit of a more fully developed oedipal theory, stating that in hysterical patients it is the forbidden love for the mother that is more important. When seen in this light this second dream can be interpreted as part of the oedipal struggle. It is also true to say, that, by the very nature of psychoanalysis, there is no correct or incorrect way to analyse a dream. More importantly for the development of psychoanalysis as a system, in the case of the treatment of hysteria, the interpretation of dreams can clearly be seen as the newest innovation, regardless of the success or otherwise of his analysis. Freud then picks up the theme of transference again that is first mentioned in print in the case of Anna O. It is clear from Freuds description that transference has now taken a much more central role in his ideas about psychoanalysis. Freud now states that transference is a fundamental and indeed necessary part of the process. Compared to the production of the basic material of psychoanalysis which the patient provides, transference can be difficult to detect. So, while Freud had previously seen transference as antipathetic to psychoanalysis, it has now become a fundamental part. It is been suggested by later writers that it is the failure to recognise existence of counter-transference in Freuds dealings with Dora that hindered his analysis (Jennings, 1986). Counter-transference is, however, as yet undeveloped in Freuds writing and awaits future elucidation. Conclusion It has become fashionable in recent years to attack Freuds intellectual achievements. Among his detractors are Jeffrey Masson (Masson, 1984) who attacks Freud for his repudiation of the seduction theory formed in his early works discussed here. Webster (1995) has attacked Freud for apparent medical errors, pointing out that Anna O probably had some kind of brain lesion, while Frau Emmy Von. N might now be diagnosed with Tourettes syndrome. In addition Webster (1995) claims that Freud exaggerated his claim to have cured patients such as Anna O and Frau Emmy Von. N. Where they really suffering from hysteria? Was the treatment wrong? An enormous number of changes can be seen occurring in Freuds thinking over just the span of these case histories. The move towards listening to the patient, letting the patient have more control of the encounter, ideas about the unconscious, ideas about the repression of sexual thoughts, methods and techniques of treatment including free association and dream analysis. Stacked up against these developments, criticisms with almost a century of hindsight to rely on, seem merely petty. Robinson (1993) points out that Freuds thinking is now so deeply embedded in our minds that it is impossible to imagine our intellectual lives without them. For this reason, it is those case of histories of hysteria, their treatment and their aetiology, that have a central importance in history of psychoanalytical thought, presaging many of the changes that were still to come. References Bernheimer, C. (1985) Introduction: Part One, in Bernheimer, C., Kahane, C. (eds.), In Doras Case: Freud Hysteria Feminism. New York: Columbia University Press. Bollas, C. (2000) Hysteria, Great Britain, Routledge. Borch-Jacobsen, M. (1996a) Neurotica: Freud and the Seduction Theory, October 76 October Magazine Ltd. and MIT, Spring 1996: 15-43. Borch-Jacobsen, M. (1996b) Remembering Anna O. A century of mystification. New York and London. Routledge. Borossa, J. (2001) Hysteria. Icon Books UK Breuer, J., Freud, S. (1893). On the Psychical Mechanism of Hysterical Phenomena: A Preliminary Communication, in Studies on hysteria, Standard Edition, 2, 3; P.F.L. 3 53 (26) Breuer, J., Freud, S. (1991). Studies on hysteria. In Strachey, J. Strachey, A. (Eds. Trans.), The Penguin Freud library (Vol. 3). London: Penguin. Edinger, D. (1968) Bertha Pappenheim: Freuds Anna O. Highland Park, IL: Congregation Solel. Ellenberger, H. (1970) The discovery of the unconscious. New York. Basic Books. Ferenczi, S. (1980) First Contributions to Psycho-Analysis. London: Maresfield Reprints. Fine, R. (1962) Freud: A Critical Re-evaluation of His Theories. New York: David McKay. Forrester, J. (1990) The seductions of psychoanalysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Freeman, L. (1972). The story of Anna 0. New York: Walker. Freud, S. (1894). The neuro-psychoses of defence., S.E., 3:45-61 Freud, S. (1896a). Further remarks on the neuro-psychoses of defence., S.E., 3:162-185. Freud, S. (1896b). Heredity and the aetiology of the neuroses., S.E., 3:143-156. Freud, S. (1896c). The aetiology of hysteria., S.E., 3:191-221 Freud, S. (1900). The interpretation of dreams. Part I., S.E., 4:1-338 Freud, S. (1905a). Fragment of an analysis of a case of hysteria., S.E., 7:7-122 Freud, S. (1905b). Three essays on the theory of sexuality., S.E., 7:130-243. Freud, S, (1970) Letters of Sigmund Freud, 1873-1939, Freud, E. L., (ed.) translated by Stern, T., Stern., J. London: The Hogarth Press. Gleaves, D. H., Hernandez, E. (1999) Recent reformulations of Freuds development and abandonment of his seduction theory: historical/scientific clarification or a continued assault on truth? History of Psychology, 2(4) 304-54. Jennings, J. L. (1986) The revival of Dora: advances in psychoanalytic theory and technique. Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 34(3) 607-35. Masson, J. M. (1984) The Assault on Truth: Freuds Suppression of the Seduction Theory, New York, 1984. Masson, J. M. (1985) The Complete Letters of Sigmund Freud to Wilhelm Fliess 1887-1904, ed. and trans. Masson, J. M. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Ramas, M. (1985) Freuds Dora, Doras Hysteria, in Bernheimer, C., Kahane, C. (eds.), In Doras Case: Freud Hysteria Feminism. New York: Columbia University Press. Robinson, P (1993) Freud and His Critics. Berkeley: University of California Press. Rosenbaum, M., Muroff, M (1984) Anna O; Fourteen contemporary reinterpretations. New York: Free Press Schimek, J. G. (1987) Fact and Fantasy in the Seduction Theory: a Historical Review, Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 35, 937-65 Schoenwald, R. L. (1956) Freud: The Man and His Mind, 1856-1956. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. Stekel, W. (1895) ber Coitus im Kindesalter; eine hygienische Studie, Wien Med Bltt 18,16 (April 18th):247-9 Webster, R. (1995) Why Freud Was Wrong: Sin, Science, and Psychoanalysis, Basic Books, New York.

The Theory Of The Mind - 964 Words

The mind is both rational and consciously aware in situations that demand a reactive response. It acts as a control system that communicates between the external world and the spiritual being, allowing reasoning to take play. For years, philosophers have hypothesized ways to identify the minds function and capabilities. Causing both controversy and accord, these philosophers center their theories on rationalism and take a methodical approach towards understanding the complexity of the mind. Renà © Descartes believed that the mind is free - â€Å"Cogito ergo sum,† I think, therefore I am. The mind involves thinking, which consists of an imagination, logic, and doubt. This relates to the concept that one actually exists and they have absolute certainty of the truth. The thinking thing, Ras Cognitus, is separate from the physical things, Res Extensa. Everyone is innately born with ideas; these ideas are a priori – ‘from before,’ which help people conceptualize what is real and what is not. Nonetheless, Descartes explained that there is no actual certainty of the senses because it might fool the eye and can cause an underlying deceit of the hidden truth of what is actually real. Descartes was an intriguing philosopher because he believed that the human body was dualistic. He believed that the mind, the nonphysical substance, cannot affect the physical world. In other words, the mind is separate from the body; therefore one cannot affect the other . Notably, he emphasized that the bodyShow MoreRelatedThe Theory Of The Mind Essay1927 Words   |  8 PagesThe stability of the mind is uncertain in the medical field. 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The neurons are like sophisticated chips and with billion of neurons, you ended up with one powerful computational device, which is brain. Brain is one hunk of matter that is intelligent t hings that allows human beings to have cognitive equipment to processes of human perception, problem solvingRead MoreThe Theory Of The Mind And Behavior1264 Words   |  6 Pagesknowledge. Aristotle, a student of Plato, theorized the concept that we were born a blank canvas and the development of our minds are sculpted by our experience, demonstrating that modern psychological debates of nature VS nurture, and interests of the functions of the mind, have been discussed for centuries. Psychology as we know it today is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour. All scientists whether chemists, biologists, physicists or psychologists must employ scientific methods to studyRead MoreThe Mind And Body : Theories1174 Words   |  5 PagesThe mind and body are two abstract concepts however; they both can be deduced to a simple principle of materialism. Rene Descartes posed a claim that, the mind and body are not related and concludes that a brain is made of matter while a mind is made of â€Å"mental processes, thought and consciousness† (simply psychology). However, Thomas Hobbes argued that â€Å"everything in the world, including our thoughts and mind, can be explained in terms of one thing: matter in motion (many world of logic). ThroughoutRead MoreThe Identity Theory Of Mind1385 Words   |  6 PagesThe development of the Identity Theory of Mind is representative of materialist philosophy’s shift towards questions of human consciousness. Within philosophical and scientific circles, discussions of the mind and body have supplanted discussions of what constitutes the world around us. Staggering technological innovation, alongside the establishment of superior of scientific research methodologies, has given rise to this philosophical trend – Identity Theory is, indeed, the culmination of this trend

The Cold War On The World War II - 1171 Words

Good morning/afternoon ladies and gentlemen I ______ am pleased to be presenting here today at the Cold War symposium. The cold war was a defining ideological conflict of the 20th century that has left a legacy into the 21st century. A critical event in the Cold War was the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. It presented a situation where both the United States and Soviet Union wielded the power of nuclear weapons, with the potential to descend the world into its first nuclear war. The Cuban Missile Crisis was initiated by the Soviet Union leader Nikita Khrushchev, provoking U.S president John Kennedy by imprudently placing nuclear missiles in Cuba. Khrushchev’s superficial proposals of a missile exchange and intentions of preventing Cuba from†¦show more content†¦To resolve the issue Soviet Leader Nikita Khrushchev authorised the construction of the Berlin wall in 1961 to officially separate the east from the west and to prevent civilians from leaving. In that same year t he US made an attempt to invade Cuba . In 1959 communist revolutionary Fidel Castro overthrew former pro-American Cuban Dictator, Fulgenico Batista. After previously living under the firm hand of American imperialism, where Cuba’s trade and economics were monopolised by the US government. Castro was determined to restore Cuba’s independence and promised to renounce their reliance on the US. President Eisenhower responded by placing an embargo on Cuba, banning the islands primary export of sugar. Also in an attempt to overthrow Castro and monopolise the government also, Eisenhower planned the ‘Bay of Pigs’ invasion of Cuba in 1960 that did not commence until 1961 when the new US President John Kennedy authorised the invasion. By this time Castro was aware of the US agenda and prepared for the invasion, and ultimately ending in a failure for the United States. Castro’s hostility towards the US grew and he severed US-Cuban relations completely. Subsequently Cuba was desperate for trade partn ers and feared impending US invasions. Castro pursued the Soviet Union who offered to purchase all Cuban sugar that was produced; thus creating conflict between both nations. This new foreign relation between Cuba

Science Thesis on SImple Physics Free Essays

Throughout this trimester, we have completed several activities to help us answer our driving question of, â€Å"which Planets would be the most habitable and how can we determine this. † In order to organize our process of learning and how we can find these planets, we divided the question Into three learning units. Our units Included Nuclear Reactions and Star, Waves and light, Analyzing stars, and Circular motion and orbits. We will write a custom essay sample on Science Thesis on SImple Physics or any similar topic only for you Order Now Our first unit was Nuclear Reactions and Stars. This unit was focused on teaching us the properties of nuclear reactions, where they occur, and how they help us find tars, relating directly to our driving unit. The main idea of this unit was that there are three types of nuclear reactions. Radioactive decay is the release of either an electron, a helium atom, or energy, In an unstable and large elements. Fission Is the process of when a neutron traveling at fast speeds strikes a large element, causing It to split into two elements and the release of usually around three neutrons. Finally, fusion occurs when two elements fuse together, producing a large amount of energy. This process requires extreme heat, like that of stars, In order to create an environment where all molecules move around at fast speeds, making them susceptible to fusion. Therefore, stars produce extreme amounts of energy through fusion. The heat produced by the sun makes fusion happen all the time. Next, through learning the equation E=mica, we realized that even a small amount of mass loss, which occurs In fusion, produces a large amount of energy. To sum up this unit, we learned about the evolutionary paths of stars and how they are affected by their mass. Basically, average mass stars go through a simple path of stellar nebula, prostate, average star, red giant, white dwarf. However, high mass stars go through a stellar nebula, high mass star, super red giant, supernova, then either a neutron star or black hole. It becomes a black hole only of its mass is incredibly high. In order to understand why this happens, we watched an understanding stars video and did some helpful bookwork. Stars go through this cycle as the balance between gravity and the stars outward force (usually fusion) changes. As a star gets hot enough to start fusion and create a variety of new elements, it’s outward force increases, causing the star to expand. As star then begins to run out of fuel, the star begins to use larger elements, cooling the gas and causing it to spread outwards. Finally, as the star begins to lose all of Its elements to fuse, gravity breaks the gravitational equilibrium It once had and collapses the star. Through this unit, we learned how stars work and how nuclear reactions are what cause the release of energy in nature. Our second unit consisted of waves and light. Now that we knew how stars work, we had to learn how we know so much about stars, how we find them, and how we find planets that orbit them. In order to accomplish this, we first investigated waves. I OFF eaves: transverse (electromagnetic) and longitudinal waves (sound). Then we learned that there are two speed equations for waves. One is the obvious s=d/t. The other equation, which is Just a derivative of this, is speed?wavelength * frequency. Through this, we could calculate the wavelength or frequency of any electromagnetic wave if we knew one or the other (because the speed is always a constant). Next we learned about the electromagnetic spectrum. This is basically a list of electromagnetic waves from least energy (longest wavelength) to most energy (shortest wavelength). This allowed us to see how much we can not see and the frequencies of these waves. Furthermore, we learned the importance of intensity, in my opinion, the most important part of this unit. Intensity is defined as the amount of energy in a given area. Basically, as we move away from the source, the area the source occupies increases, thus decreasing the energy we feel or see. Through the intensity lab, in which I did high tech, we figured that the relationship is an inverse square. Using our now known knowledge about intensity, waves, and luminosity(power output or dotage), we could now use the luminosity of the star to find the habitable zone. To do this, we used the equations given by the online activity, eventually allowing us to see if there was a habitable planet, usually fictional, in the stars zone. In unit three, we expanded on our star knowledge from unit one and two. One of the main projects we did in this unit was the star evaluation sheet. We had to find a random star using the online planetarium given to us and then research it’s characteristics. Once we found a star we liked, we used websites, such as wisped, o find out the basics of the star. Through the website, we were able to find distance from the earth, Surface temperature, the star’s radius, the star’s mass, and its Luminosity. Using this information, we were able to use our past knowledge and equations and new equations (wavelength of peak emission=b/T where b is Wine’s displacement constant) in order to further our information about the star. Next, we used the equation of r=((1360*Lasts/Lulus)/ in order to find the outer and inner edge of the stars habitable zone (using 720 and 1500 as established intensities for habitable zone edges). Then using what we knew about that mass, luminosity, and temperature of the star, we could use the H-R diagrams, which we learned about this unit doing book work, to determine the stage the star was in. Sadly, my star was a massive star in its supernatant stage. Even though the star did have a useable habitable zone, the star’s life span was way too short, leading to the conclusion that my star shouldn’t be considered as a possibility for Project Cygnus colony ship. Furthermore, we also did an activity online in which we chose a star offered, figured out whether it had a planet orbiting it through the brightness dips in the graph), figured out the period of the planet (again through the amount of time it took for the brightness dips to occur), and then through a series of equations, we found the habitable zone and saw whether the planet was inside of the zone. This unit helped expand our knowledge on stars and to fugue out how to find the habitable zones of stars and whether a planet is orbiting in that zone. Objects are able to travel in a circle and why two objects in orbit do not collide into each other. Through a series of readings and activities, such as the water demo, we earned that centripetal force is the force holding an object in circular motion and it points radically inward. However, this brought up a couple of questions. These included: â€Å"Why does the water in the cup during the water demo not fall out? ND Why do we not fall out of a reallocates when we are upside down. In order to answer both, we first looked at properties of an object traveling in a circular direction. First, we learned that centripetal equation is basically acceleration in a circular direction that points inward. In a object is traveling in a circular path, we can SE the equation centripetal acceleration=(tangential speed)AAA / the radius of the circl e in meters. To find the tangential speed, the equation we used was speed?circumference of the circle/the period of the object. This is basically speed?distance/time. These equations helped us do our buggy lab in which we found the centripetal acceleration and used this to help us find the amount of centripetal force (in Newton’s) by using the equation f=mass*acceleration. The mass was easily found via a scale and we used the equations given to help us find the acceleration. However, this still didn’t totally answer the question of why we do not all out of a roller coaster when we are upside down. Through a presentation and a roller coaster Journal glasswork, we realized that the reason this happens is because there is a normal force caused by our speed and inertia that causes us to resist falling. Through all of this, I realized that this perfectly explained the driving question of this unit, which stated Why does the moon not crash into the planet it is orbiting, the earth? As a result of these activities, I understood that this is because the object is constantly accelerating towards the center, causing an elliptical like orbit where he planet never crashes. In conclusion, this unit taught me why objects stay in orbit and the forces involved in circular motion. With still more to go in this unit, I am quite excited to see where this leads us. Overall, all of the activities we have done have lead us closer to answering our driving question of the unit, â€Å"What planets are habitable and how can we determine this. † Through a series of activities, labs, and lectures, we have learned about the properties of stars and their orbiting planets, all of which have helped us determine information about stars and their orbiting planets. How to cite Science Thesis on SImple Physics, Papers

Airline Pricing Strategy-Free-Samples for Students-Myassignment

Question: Discuss about the Price Discrimination Strategy in the Airline Market. Answer: Introduction Being the fastest and costliest means of transportation customers are always looking for best deals within their budget. In todays competitive world, it becomes a matter of serious headache to find airline tickets at a reasonable price. The objective of Airline companies is to maximize their revenues by making more money. While, customers willing to spend least possible price. In this situation uniform price charging is cannot be considered as the best pricing strategy. Setting too high price hurts companys income by making the tickets less affordable. Too low price on the other hand may be insufficient to recover companies cost. Therefore, airline companies go for a discriminating strategy based on different condition. Ticket fare depends on time of booking the tickets. However, there is no hard and fast rule regarding the time dependency of tickets. In case of advanced ticket booking for a long distance journey, it is observed that people experience a comparatively low fare. Fare also depends on particular season of the year or particular day in a week. Discount often offers to particular group of customers like military personnel, students and senior citizens. To make a clear pricing strategy airline groups distinguishes the ticket-booking customers in three basic classes- business class, economy class and first class. The class differentiation is depending on different affordability of customers. The economy class contains cheapest tickets. For business and first class passengers, the fare is higher subject to providing them different comfort facilities. In the paper, pricing strategies of airline business is viewed. Analysis has been made to find the rationale of such pricing strategies and its implication on welfare. Different price for same seat In order to earn maximum profit from each flight traveled airlines go with optimization of each seat. The strategy devised by airline in times of determining seat price is called yield management (Nagle, Hogan and Zale 2016). It allows the company to charge differentiated price for identical seat. While deciding on fare price the airlines differentiated buyers according their willingness to pay. There is one group who does not care for price and other group that do not purchase tickets beyond a certain price. The first group consists of passengers traveling for business, family emergencies or may be one who has a very high margin of income. When airline charges uniformly high price, then only first category of buyers make purchase. Yet, such pricing enable sellers a high profit. Then problem will be leaving the flight with many empty seats. Thus, the airlines miss scope for earning revenues from the empty seats. Another extreme to make the flight completely booked is to set a lower price, making it affordable for both the groups (Lawton 2017). By selling ticket at low price airline owners, lose the additional surplus from consumers with a high willingness to pay. As a result, the company chooses to adapt strategy in between the two extremes. Here, they first sell their tickets to the first high paying groups and then sell the rest to the second group of consumers. Marginal cost for each additional seat is almost negligible. Yet, from discriminatory practice, they earn greater marginal revenue. Hence, the profits of airlines are maximized with filling every seat for the flight (Koh and Seager 2017) Price of Air Tickets depends on its substitutes and complement goods The substitute good of one companies airline tickets are tickets sold by other company for the same journey. In case of substitute produce price of one good has a positive effect on demand for other, the indifference curve so obtained here is a negatively sloped straight line. Figure 1: Consumption for Substitute goods (Source: As created by Author) In case of complementary good demand of one good is related with the demand for a related good. The willingness to buy airline tickets depend on the other package related service or facilities provided by the company. In this case, the indifference curve showing locus of different consumption points is L shaped. Figure 2: Consumption for Substitute goods (Source: as created by the Author) Price difference for different class Before deciding price, airlines first consider which category of plant will be used for the flights. This gives idea about the number of seats in each travel class. The quality of class is considered as travel class and type of tickets refer as booking class. The travel classes include first class, business class, economy class and premium economy class (Bilotkach, Gaggero and Piga 2015). The ticket price for each class depends on different factors. The categorization of class is again guided by the profit motive. The airline travelers are mainly of two types- business travelers and leisure travelers. The ticket for demand is more elastic for leisure travelers. They are able to adjust their travelling schedule with dates. In contrast, those travelling for business purpose cannot postpone their schedule and has end with an inelastic demand. The leisure travelers enjoy their time advantage by booking tickets for their pre planed trips and book cheaper class. Those have business objecti ves or any other emergencies books tickets at a much closer time for flight departure. All the tickets of cheaper or economic class have been already sold and they have no choice but to purchase tickets from expensive business class (Homsombat, Lei and Fu 2014). Depending on elasticity of different markets, monopolist devises price discrimination strategy and attains maximum profit. In the same way airline company by following discriminating strategy maximized their profit (Wen and Chen 2017). Figure 3: price discrimination strategy (Source: Varian 2014) Reason for price change The forces of demand and supply determines price in the free market. In the context of airline service supply refers to availability of seats and demand refers to demand for available seat. There are some times when the demand for flight tickets is high than its usual time. In times of holiday, high demand generated from leisure class (Grant 2016). During this time, airline companies can respond in two ways. First, in order to accommodate all of them in economic class they can increase the fares for economic class. Another strategy they can adapt is to reduce ticket price for business class. In this time, there are less rush for business travelers. Instead of leaving the seats empty it is better to fill them with travelers that have willingness in between the business and economic class. Because of elasticity of air ticket among the leisure-class a small relaxation of price gives a high boost to ticket demand and increase profit of airline owners Figure 4: Peak load pricing (Source: as created by the Author) Pricing Strategies for some major airlines Singapore airlines: Singapore airline is one of the top ten airline companies in Singapore. In order to maximize its revenue it devises a mix marketing strategy. In the mixed strategy different group the company mostly target customers belonging to middle class and upper middle class. The reason for targeting this group is to their comparatively higher willingness to pay for therir comfort. Customers from these groups look for a comfortable and reliable journey and even pay some extra money to have additional comfort. Therefore, the pricing policy is known as premium pricing policy as the prices are set for targeted premium groups. This prmium airline company use social media sites like facebook, blog, twitter, you tube for promoting their marketing strategy. Air Asia Pricing strategy that is most successfully and profitably followed by Air Asia is the Penetration strategy. Under this strategy a low fare is set for newly opened and mostly visited destinations. It is a unique strategy used by Air Asia, known as Low Cost Carriers (LCC). The rationale behind keeping a low price is that air travelling is considered as a luxury items having elastic demand. Therefore, a slight low price attracts a large traveller base for the company. To keep the price low cost efficient strategies are used by the company. Jetstar Like Air Asia Jet star also uses LCC strategy. However, it does not use LCC strategy in its pure form. Fares are substantially higher in some situation than it is under LCC. Its close competitor is Tiger Airways which is a Singapore based airline. Dynamic pricing strategy is more appropriate form of pricing to justify its pricing strategy. Dynamic pricing strategy involve charging different prices based on time of booking the tickets, consideration also given on peak season or off season. It also uses segment pricing method by segmenting different class of customers. Factors affecting airline demand and price overtime There are factors apart from own price that affects the demand for airline tickets and its price. Fuel price is important factor determining the cost of the airlines and hence their fares. Fuel cost constitutes highest share of airline cost (Ferguson 2014). If there is an increase in fuel prices overtime, then fare price increases for all classes. Change in social and demographic composition affects the demand for air travel. Increasing population in metropolitan areas results in road congestion. Then people prefer to travel by air to save their time and find suitable deal. Factors causing change in personal life style affects the demand for airlines tickets. There are evidences that trends household composition and formation, potentiality of physical trip substitution with electronic substitutes affect household demand for air travelling. With economic growth peoples income changes and thus their attitudes towards travelling expense are also changes (Lazarev 2013). They value their comforts more in response to increasing income. Changing structural composition in the economy leads to change profession of the people that may influence demand in business class travel. The factors causing change in demand directly affects the pricing strategies of airline companies. Welfare implication and scope for public intervention Welfare of each economic agents and overall social welfare is understood by analyzing the concept of consumer surplus and producer surplus Consumer surplus is the benefit enjoyed by a consumer and it calculated as a difference between willingness to pay for a good and its market price. Producer surplus is the gain enjoyed by the producer from production activity. It is obtained by subtracting the minimum cost to the producer from the existing market price. Figure 5: Consumer surplus in the market (Source: as created by the Author) Figure 6: Producer surplus in the market (Source: as created by the Author) By charging discriminatory prices, surplus of the airline companies are maximized. However, this does not always maximize consumer surplus by offering them best deals. At times of emergency buyers have to pay a higher price and hence have very low or zero consumer surplus. The strategy of price discrimination enables airline companies to enjoy the entire consumer and producer surplus (Bergantino and Capozza 2015). In the airline market, government should relax regulation regarding the entry barriers in the industry. Entry barriers in the market establish monopoly in the market. Increasing market power provides greater scopes for price discrimination. Relaxing entry barriers does not mean complete deregulation of the industry. Public policy makers should encourage competition in the market. Government should still control air traffic, arrange programs for safety and participate in the development of airways (Escobari, Rupp and Meskey 2016). The regulation of airline fares by imposing price ceiling or floor can also be the desired interventionist strategies. Conclusion Price discrimination is a well-known strategy in the airline market. There are different factors on which air tickets price depend. Time of tickets booking is one such factor. In times of advanced booking, fares are generally low whereas person, booking tickets under some emergency pays a much higher price for the same tickets. Fares are also subject to people willingness to pay for the ticket, which in turn depends on their income and preference. People willing to travel comfortably and has affordability travels in business or first class. Economic class is for people having lowest affordability. During holiday, there can be a mismatch between availability of air tickets and its demand. This influences ticket prices by forces of demand and supply. Apart from these, there are factors than effect pricing in the airline market over time. The changing composition of income, social and demographic features, change in fuel price are come such factors. Finally, there are scope for governme nt to correct distortion in the by preventing the discrimination. One way of government intervention is to increase competition in the market by reducing entry restriction. In addition to relaxing entry barriers the government can make some intervention in areas like air traffic management, air way development and other areas. References Bergantino, A.S. and Capozza, C., 2015. One price for all? Price discrimination and market captivity: Evidence from the Italian city-pair markets.Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice,75, pp.231-244. Bilotkach, V., Gaggero, A.A. and Piga, C.A., 2015. Airline pricing under different market conditions: Evidence from European Low-Cost Carriers.Tourism Management,47, pp.152-163. Escobari, D., Rupp, N.G. and Meskey, J., 2016. Dynamic price discrimination in airlines. Ferguson, J.L., 2014. Implementing price increases in turbulent economies: Pricing approaches for reducing perceptions of price unfairness.Journal of Business Research,67(1), pp.2732-2737. Grant, R.M., 2016.Contemporary strategy analysis: Text and cases edition. John Wiley Sons. Homsombat, W., Lei, Z. and Fu, X., 2014. Competitive effects of the airlines-within-airlines strategyPricing and route entry patterns.Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review,63, pp.1-16. Koh, C.Y.C. and Seager, T.P., 2017. Value-Based Pharmaceutical Pricing From the Patient Perspective Could Incentivize Innovation.Pharmaceutical Medicine, pp.1-5. Lawton, T.C., 2017.Cleared for take-off: structure and strategy in the low fare airline business. Routledge. Lazarev, J., 2013. The welfare effects of intertemporal price discrimination: an empirical analysis of airline pricing in US monopoly markets.Unpublished manuscript. Nagle, T.T., Hogan, J. and Zale, J., 2016.The Strategy and Tactics of Pricing: New International Edition. Routledge. Varian, H.R., 2014.Intermediate Microeconomics: A Modern Approach: Ninth International Student Edition. WW Norton Company. Wen, C.H. and Chen, P.H., 2017. Passenger booking timing for low-cost airlines: A continuous logit approach.Journal of Air Transport Management